Do 'International' directors exist?

Can directors such as Danny Boyle and Luc Besson be seen as a new breed of ‘international’ rather than ‘national’ filmmakers?

In this essay, I am going to examine the work of contemporary European filmmakers, such as Luc Besson, and Danny Boyle, and try to assess whether they can be seen as ‘international’, rather than ‘national’, directors.

The term “national cinema” is used to describe the industry and films produced or distributed by a particular nation state, often in reference to cultural heritage and influences, economic factors, or when trying to categorise certain movements. This is somewhat a simplification of the term, and when exploring the concepts surrounding national cinemas, issues arise. For example: what determines a film as a particular product of one particular nation? Is it where it is made? The country, or company, that provides funding for the film? Is it to do with the nationality of the director, the crew or the cast? Or is it simply defined by the language that the original film uses?

In the Preface to her book European Identity in Cinema[1], Wendy Everett states that national cinema is:

“….a series of expressions of different ways of questioning and portraying itself [sic] to the world. The differences must therefore
be part of any analysis of its identity…”[2]

Taking this view into account, during the course of my essay I shall look at what defines the films Trainspotting[3] and The Fifth Element[4] as part of their respective national cinemas; that is, what is it within the films that influences or reflects their own cultures, and also what could be seen as more of an international influence – breaking the conceptions of national cinema and making it more of an international one.

Film scholars, such as Andrew Higson (quoted below) and Ian Aitkin[5], have often discussed such concepts of national cinema in their work, and what defines it as a culture and an art form, in particular taking into account the domestic and international audiences and appeal:

". . . there is what may be called a criticism-led approach to national cinema, which tends to reduce national cinema to the terms of a quality art cinema, a culturally worthy cinema steeped in the high- cultural and/or modernist heritage of a particular national state, rather than one which appeals to the desires and fantasies of the popular audiences."[6]

In the course of his article, Higson identifies the paradox that many have discussed: in order for a film to be considered part of a national cinema, it has to be recognised internationally. This is also demonstrated in Everett’s point about acknowledging differences in order to recognise the individual identity. This brings us to the question of not only identifying films as a national cinema, but filmmakers. What defines a film or filmmaker as an ‘International’ rather than ‘National’ product?

Directors such as Luc Besson and Danny Boyle are written about within the context of their own nationalities – French and Scottish respectively. The Fifth Element, and Trainspotting, along with many of their other works, are often seen as pioneering and revolutionising their domestic industries. However, to link these films directly into their domestic markets, and exclude other nationalities, is to ignore any collaboration, or success, these films may have had internationally. In his article “Current problems in the study of European cinema and the role of questions on cultural identity”, Ian Aitkin cites that the Globalisation of the film industry has meant a lapse in national cinematic identity, and has shifted the focus to a whole European identity, rather than singular nationalities[7]. With this reading in mind, how can we decide on the nationality of such films as The Fifth Element, which was a collaborative effort between British and French production crews, American technical crews, and was filmed in Britain? Is it solely French because its director is French? And what of films such as 28 Days Later – one of Boyle’s most recent works, which is often seen as British, included in the BFI listings of British films, and takes place in London and the surrounding countryside. Is it to be considered Scottish, as is a possible conclusion with Trainspotting, just because Boyle himself is Scottish? Are these examples of the new ‘international’ breed of filmmaking?

Trainspotting was released in 1996 to great critical acclaim[8], and is an adaptation of a book by the Scottish writer Irvine Welsh, and the plot, characters and setting of the film is almost identical to that in the novel. Danny Boyle chose to film on location in Edinburgh with an almost all-Scottish cast, notably including Ewan McGregor (one of Scotland’s most famous actors), and Jonny Lee Miller (the only English member of the main cast). The overwhelming “Scottish” elements of this film would make one instantly consider this as part of Scotland’s national cinema. However, that does not take into account the audience reception, (which, if we are to follow Higson’s theory, is key to understanding the concept of national cinema), the crew and funding, as well as the many elements in the film that break down the stereotypes and expectations of films about or made by Scottish people – which is going against the culture and influence one would expect to find in Scottish cinema.

In his paper ‘Peripheral Visions’[9], Duncan Petrie questions the notions of such films, and explores the idea of the existence (or lack thereof) of a Scottish national cinema industry. His evidence in exploring this topic includes looking at the small number of feature films which consider themselves “Scottish” (he cites seven, though one must take note that Trainspotting is not mentioned once in the article). He asks how there can be a real Scottish output without funding, as it is indeed ‘a limited domestic market, itself a sub-set of another limited domestic market’[10], taking example from films such as Shallow Grave, which were made with joint funding from Channel Four Films (based in London), and the then newly formed Glasgow Film Fund[11], and questioning whether they would have been as successful without its British input. He also makes the valid point about Scottish cinema beginning ‘…to take on very much the character of non-commercial European Art Cinema’[12], something which was evident in Trainspotting (before its mass marketing campaign!). However, he also stresses that this is yet to be realised, as Art Movements that are seen as belonging to a particular national cinema, such as Italian Neo-Realism, and the French Nouvelle Vague, were in part dependant on the support of their governments. The “Scottish” industry is, due to the nature of political and economic ties and factors, funded by a British Council. Also, many Scots serious about pursuing a film career – be it acting, like Ewan McGregor, James McAvoy, or Sean Connery, or filmmaking like Danny Boyle – often have to leave Scotland and its lack of wider prospects behind and seek it elsewhere – in the “British” or Hollywood industry. Films such as A Life Less Ordinary, made by Boyle and starring Ewan McGregor, also feature an American, Cameron Diaz, as the leading lady, is set in America, and is certainly never referred to as part of Scottish cinematic culture[13]. This, plus other factors, leads to the question of whether this national cinema really can exist at all?

Whether a sustainable Scottish film industry, or indeed any national film industry, actually exists or not is in itself an entirely different question. However, it affects the judgement one would give as to which national cinema industry films like Trainspotting or 28 Days belong to, and whether Danny Boyle, who has reached success outside of his own industry most of all, is actually part of the new breed of ‘international’ directors after all. Are we to instead think of this film as British?
Many members of the crew and people that influenced the film would consider themselves British, for example, Damon Albarn, who contributed to much of the soundtrack.

So where does it stop? Can we go further and say that because the soundtrack featured both British and American artists (notably David Bowie, Underworld and Iggy Pop), that it is an international soundtrack? What of its post-production and distributions? It was released in the USA (albeit altered from its original slightly – with subtitles and slightly altered dialogue, for it was felt that American audiences would find the harsh Edinburgh dialect difficult to understand), distributed by Miramax, and funded by Polygram. Does that mean that after its production, it became an international film? And what of Danny Boyle’s films to date? 28 days Later[14] – made by the same Scottish man with the same Scottish heritage – is set all over the UK, and is revelled in and is acclaimed for its eerie and harrowing scenes of an empty London (shots that are mirrored at the end of Trainspotting, with Renton walking over Westminster Bridge as well). This is, as previously mentioned, often considered a British film, and was popular internationally – with the differences between cultures making it no less accessible for any audience.

There are scenes in Trainspotting which break down the certain expectations and stereotypes one might have about Scottish films. Rather than glorify Scottish culture, (as one might argue, Almodovar does with Spanish culture in All About My Mother), Mark Renton is led to making a very derogatory speech about Scotland:

“…Tommy: Doesn't it make you proud to be Scottish?

Renton: It’s shite being Scottish. We're the lowest of the fucking low, the scum of the earth, the most wretched, servile, miserable, pathetic trash that was ever shat into civilization… It's a shite state of affairs and all the fresh air in the world will not make any fucking difference…”[15]

This monologue comes at a time when the main protagonists are in the heart of the Scottish Highlands, when one would expect a positive view their homeland. The character of Tommy is reflecting the Scottish pride we would expect – his positive attitude framed in the shot by blue sky - and the other characters, framed by clouds and dark landscape, are rejecting such notions, citing that the thing that Scots are most proud of (their landscape) can’t save them, just as they are also rejecting the usual Scottish culture by choosing heroin. Whilst many of the characters talk about and idolise Sean Connery, (in particular Sick Boy), a notably famous Scot, they also idolise Iggy Pop – an American – so are not adverse to embracing international cultures. Renton also has to leave Scotland, his homeland, in order to attain any salvation, and to “Choose Life”.

Many other scenes in the film show the influence of European Art House aesthetics and thematic elements – which take the film further away from Scottish culture. For example, the opening sequence features the characters running along one of the main streets, with ‘Lust For Life’ by Iggy Pop featuring heavily, as well as Renton’s “Choose Life” monologue – which is echoed at the end of the film. We are introduced to our main characters, narrator, and main theme, and leap straight into the film rather than know who are the actors, directors, or even the title of the film! This is very much inline with independent art films – which focus on style and content more than star power. Other scenes, such as those in the nightclubs, and the scene in which Renton suffers the symptoms of heroin withdrawal, feature quick shots, cuts, and surrealist elements that are found far more in art house than main stream films.

Another director who takes influence from cultures other than his own is Luc Besson. His film, The Fifth Element, is an amalgamation of cultures – with a multinational cast and crew, and foreign influences. Whilst the film, and Besson himself, is very popular in France, and considered one of the most expensive productions in the history of French cinema, there are many elements of the film that seem to take it away from its national cinema and make it more of an ‘international’ film – hence creating the notion that Besson is part of the set of new ‘international’ film makers.

One of the most obvious elements of the film that would make it appear to belong to international cinema is its international cast, featuring Hollywood stars such as Bruce Willis, Gary Oldman, Chris Tucker, notable English faces like Lee Evans, and Milla Jovovich, who is Russian. Its chosen language is English, and the actors are all allowed to speak in their own native accents – again adding an international dimension.

The narrative of the film can be seen to mirror that of the classic “Hollywood” narrative. Our hero and heroine and introduced early on in the film – with Leeloo literally falling into his lap. The villain, and the answer to beating him, is also revealed very early on. Despite the argument that this could be seen in a parodic sense, (perhaps reminiscent of the stereotypical French dislike for Americans), it does mean that the majority of the film is simply action leading to a climatic point – with a resolution at the end, rather than an ambiguous one that would be expected in an Arthouse film. This again follows more closely with the Hollywood narrative ideal.

The films stylistic elements also have international influence. It is set in New York City, with Korben Dallas driving a stylised version of the American taxi cabs. There are internationally recognised brands (Chanel, a French export, and Mcdonalds). Much of the music is from international artists – in particular the music used in the chase scenes and the Plava Laguna concert. Also the fact that it was filmed in Pinewood Studios, and the crew consisted of English, American and French technicians, and an American writer, means that there was some considerable international collaboration, which, in theoretical terms, could change the nationality of the film.

However, one cannot deny the elements of French culture and influence in the film. In her article on the Cinema du Look[16], an art movement in the late 1980’s and 1990’s based in France, Sue Harris cites Besson, and in particular his film The Fifth Element, as one of the main contributors to such a movement, which would naturally lead to the idea that this film is predominantly French. She explains that films belonging to this movement often ‘share a distinctly oneiric [dreamlike] quality’, and ‘are generically influenced by expressly popular genres’. This would fit into a film such as Besson’s, which belongs to the science fiction genre, and revels in aesthetics that give it an ethereal and dreamlike feel.

The film itself is very stylised, as found in most French art pieces. From very small details like the points on Korben’s driving licence being deducted in a way akin to the French system, or the cigarettes being ‘backwards’ (i.e. a long filter and very little tobacco), to the highly stylised costumes by French designer Jean Paul Gaultier, and Besson signature styles such as the syncopation of music and movement, as found in the scene which intercuts between the opera performance and Leeloo fighting. Also, the use of minimal dialogue, (‘Big Bada Boom’), and symbolism (such as the orange in their costumes, Korben’s cab and Leeloo’s hair), to note the connection between them are more akin to Art house films, than the clear cut connections that would be found in a more Hollywood based piece.

The depictions of New York, styled in a way akin to French comic books, and the religious undertones to the script mark out the cultural differences between this and a Hollywood movie. The religious undertones, and issues of separation between “Church” and “State”, are issues much more important to a French audience than an international one.

Such details as these, as well as the obvious ones such as Besson’s French upbringing and the film’s production company (Gaumont), show that whilst there are many international cultural influences, the film can still lay claim to its French roots, whilst bringing a new type of genre and ideas to French cinema. As Sue Harris concludes:

“…The Fifth Element is a film that recognizes its parentage, and pays adoring homage to it”.[17]

To label directors such as Boyle and Besson as ‘international’ denies much of their own cultural influences that go into making their films. One must argue whether these films would have been made with such a strong understanding of their cultures, if the filmmaker themselves was not native to that country. Whilst these films have many elements that make them appeal internationally, to deny them of belonging to a particular national cinema is to take away the sorts of diversity that make European cinema so interesting. Questions arise as to whether cultural identities will integrate further in the future, but for now, directors such as these can keep their identities in tact.

Bibliography

Texts cited:

• Everett, Wendy, European Identity in Cinema, (Intellect, 1996, Wiltshire) pp1-28, pp75-82, pp93-102
• Ezra, Elizabeth, European Cinema, (Oxford University Press, 2004, Hants), pp219-299
• Higson, Andrew, ‘The Concept Of National Cinema’, in The European Cinema Reader, Fowler, Catherine Ed, (Routledge 2002), pp132-42

Internet Resources:

· http://cinemaspace.berkeley.edu/Papers

· http://en.wikipedia.org

• http://www.imdb.com
• http://www.pg.ru/scripts/trainspotting.html

Texts Used in Research (not cited):

• Allinson, Mark, A Spanish Labyrinth: the films of Pedro Almodovar, (I.B.Tauris, 2001, Cornwall)
• Eleftheriotis, Dimitris, Popular Cinemas of Europe: Studies of Texts, Contexts and Frameworks, (Continuum Int.,2001, USA)
• Hayward, Susan, ‘Besson’s Mission Elastoplast: Le Cinquieme Element’, in Powrie, Phil ed, French Cinema in the 1990’s, (Oxford University Press, 1999, London)
• Moran, Albert, Film Policy, (Routledge, 1996, St. Ives)
• Murphy, Robert, The British Cinema Book, (BFI, 1997, UK)
• Strauss, Frederic, Almodovar on Almodovar, (Faber and Faber, 1996, St Ives)

Filmography

• Trainspotting, (d. Danny Boyle), 1996, Polygram Filmed.
• The Fifth Element (Le Cinquieme Element), (d. Luc Besson), 1997, Gaumont Productions.
• All About My Mother (Todo Sobre Mi Madre), (d. Pedro Almodovar), 1999, El Deseo S.A/Renn Productions
• Shallow Grave (d. Danny Boyle), 1994, Channel Four Films
• The Big Blue (Le Grand Bleu), (d. Luc Besson), 1988, Gaumont International.

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[1] Wendy Everett ed., European Identity in Cinema, (Intellect, 1996, Wiltshire)

[2] Ibid. p5

[3] Trainspotting, (d. Danny Boyle), 1996, Polygram Filmed

[4] The Fifth Element (d. Luc Besson), 1997, Gaumont Productions.

[5] Ian Aitkin, ‘Current problems in the study of European cinema and the role of questions on cultural identity’, in Wendy Everett ed. European Identity in Cinema, p75

[6] Andrew Higson, ‘The Concept of National Cinema’, quoted from http://cinemaspace.berkeley.edu/Papers/CityOfSadness/concl.html

[7] Idea taken from article by Ian Aitkin, ibid. p75

[8] Factual information taken from http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0117951/ and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trainspotting_%28film%29

[9] Duncan Petrie, ‘Peripheral visions: filmmaking in Scotland’, in European Identity in Cinema,pp93-101

[10] Ibid, p93.

[11] Ibid, p95.

[12] Ibid. P101.

[13] Factual information taken from http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0119535/

[14] 28 Days Later, (d. Danny Boyle), 2002, BFI.

[15] http://www.pg.ru/scripts/trainspotting.html

[16] Sue Harris, ‘The Cinema Du Look’, taken from European Cinema, Elizabeth Ezra ed, (Oxford University Press, 2004, Hants).

[17] Ibid. p229